20 QUESTIONS ABOUT OZONE
Ozone is present only in small amounts in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is vital to human well-being as well as agricultural and ecosystem sustainability. Most of Earth’s ozone resides in the stratosphere, the layer of the atmosphere that is more than 10 kilometers (6 miles) above the surface. About 90% of atmospheric ozone is contained in the stratospheric “ozone layer”, which shields Earth’s surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the Sun.
In the mid-1970s scientists discovered that some human-produced chemicals could lead to depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer. The resulting increase in ultraviolet radiation at Earth’s surface would increase the incidents of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and also adversely affect plants, crops, and ocean plankton.
Following the discovery of this environmental issue, researchers sought a better understanding of this threat to the ozone layer. Monitoring stations showed that the abundances of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) were steadily increasing in the atmosphere. These trends were linked to growing production and use of chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) for spray can propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning, foam blowing, and industrial cleaning. Measurements in the laboratory and in the atmosphere characterized the chemical reactions that were involved in ozone destruction. Computer models of the atmosphere employing this information were used to simulate how much ozone depletion was already occurring and to predict how much more might occur in the future.
Observations of the ozone layer showed that depletion was indeed occurring. The most severe and most surprising ozone loss was discovered to be recurring in springtime over Antarctica. The loss in this region is commonly called the “ozone hole” because the ozone depletion is so large and localized. A thinning of the ozone layer also has been observed over other regions of the globe, such as the Arctic and northern and southern mid altitudes.
The work of many scientists throughout the world has built a broad and solid scientific understanding of the ozone depletion process. With this understanding, we know that ozone depletion is occurring and why. Most importantly, we know that if the most potent ODSs were to continue to be emitted and increase in the atmosphere, the result would be more depletion of the ozone layer.
In 1985 the world governments adopted the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, in response to the prospect of increasing ozone depletion. The Vienna Convention provided a framework to protect the ozone layer. In 1987, this framework led to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (the Montreal Protocol), an international treaty designed to control the production and consumption of CFCs and other ODSs. As a result of the broad compliance with the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments and Adjustments as well as industry’s development of “ozone-friendly” substitutes to replace CFCs, the total global accumulation of ODSs in the atmosphere has slowed and begun to decrease. The replacement of CFCs has occurred in two phases: first via the use of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) that cause considerably less damage to the ozone layer compared to CFCs, and second by the introduction of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) that pose no harm to ozone. In response, global ozone depletion has stabilized, and initial signs of recovery of the ozone layer have been identified. With continued compliance, substantial recovery of the ozone layer is expected by the middle of the 21st century. The day the Montreal Protocol was agreed upon, 16 September, is now celebrated as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer.
The Amendment and Adjustment process is a vitally important aspect of the Montreal Protocol. At the Meeting of the Parties of the Montreal Protocol held in Kigali, Rwanda during October 2016, the Amendment process achieved an important new milestone, the Kigali Amendment. The Amendment phases down future global production and consumption of certain HFCs. While HFCs pose no threat to the ozone layer because they lack chlorine and bromine, they are greenhouse gases (GHGs), which lead to warming of surface climate. The amendment process was motivated by projections of substantial increases in the global use of HFCs in the coming decades. The control of HFCs under the Kigali Amendment marks the first time the Montreal Protocol has adopted regulations solely for the protection of climate.
Q1 What is Ozone, how is it formed, and where is it in the atmosphere ?
Ozone is a gas that is naturally present in our atmosphere. Each ozone molecule contains three atoms of oxygen and is denoted chemically as O3. Ozone is found primarily in two regions of the atmosphere. About 10% of Earth’s ozone is in the troposphere, which extends from the surface to about 10–15 kilometers (6–9 miles) altitude. About 90% of Earth’s ozone resides in the stratosphere, the region of the atmosphere between the top of the troposphere and about 50 kilometers (31 miles) altitude. The part of the stratosphere with the highest amount of ozone is commonly referred to as the “ozone layer”. Throughout the atmosphere, ozone is formed in multistep chemical processes that are initiated by sunlight. In the stratosphere, the process begins with an oxygen molecule (O2) being broken apart by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. In the troposphere, ozone is formed by a different set of chemical reactions that involve naturally occurring gases as well as those from sources of air pollution.
Q2 Why do we care about atmospheric Ozone?
Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs a large part of the Sun’s biologically harmful ultraviolet radiation. Stratospheric ozone is considered “good” ozone because of this beneficial role. In contrast, ozone formed at Earth’s surface in excess of natural amounts is considered “bad” ozone because it is harmful to humans, plants, and animals.
Ozone in the stratosphere (Good ozone). Stratospheric ozone is considered good for humans and other life forms because it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. If not absorbed, high energy UV radiation would reach Earth’s surface in amounts that are harmful to a variety of life forms. The Sun emits three types of UV radiation: UV-C (100 to 280 nanometer (nm) wavelengths); UV-B (280 to 315 nm), and UV-A (315 to 400 nm). Exposure to UV-C radiation is particularly dangerous to all life forms. Fortunately, UV-C radiation is entirely absorbed within the ozone layer. Most UV-B radiation emitted by the Sun is absorbed by the ozone layer; the rest reaches Earth’s surface. In humans, increased exposure to UV-B radiation raises the risks of skin cancer and cataracts, and suppresses the immune system. Exposure to UV-B radiation before adulthood and cumulative exposure are both important health risk factors. Excessive UV-B exposure also can damage terrestrial plant life, including agricultural crops, single-celled organisms, and aquatic ecosystems. Low energy UV radiation, UV-A, which is not absorbed significantly by the ozone layer, causes premature aging of the skin.
Q3 How is total ozone distributed over the globe?
The distribution of total ozone over Earth varies with geographic location and on daily to seasonal timescales. These variations are caused by large-scale movements of stratospheric air and the chemical production and destruction of ozone. Total ozone is generally lowest at the equator and highest in midlatitude and polar regions.
Q4 How is ozone measured in the atmosphere?
The amount of ozone in the atmosphere is measured by instruments on the ground and carried aloft on balloons, aircraft, and satellites. Some instruments measure ozone locally by continuously drawing air samples into a small detection chamber. Other instruments measure ozone remotely over long distances by using ozone’s unique optical absorption or emission properties.
Measuring Ozone in the Atmosphere: Ozone is measured throughout the atmosphere with instruments on the ground, aircraft, high-altitude balloons, and satellites. Some instruments measure ozone locally in sampled air and others measure ozone remotely some distance away from the instrument. Instruments use optical techniques, with the Sun and lasers as light sources; detect the thermal emissions from ozone; or use chemical reactions that are unique to ozone. At many locations over the globe, regular measurements are made to monitor total ozone amounts and their variations over time.
Q5 How does emission of halogen source gases lead to stratospheric ozone depletion?
The initial step in the depletion of stratospheric ozone by human activities is the emission, at Earth’s surface, of gases that contain chlorine and bromine and have long atmospheric lifetimes. Most of these gases accumulate in the lower atmosphere because they are relatively unreactive and do not dissolve readily in rain or snow. Natural air motions transport these accumulated gases to the stratosphere, where they are converted to more reactive gases. Some of these gases then participate in reactions that destroy ozone. Finally, when air returns to the lower atmosphere, these reactive chlorine and bromine gases are removed from Earth’s atmosphere by rain and snow.
Q6 What emissions from human activities lead to ozone depletion?
Certain industrial processes and consumer products result in the emission of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) to the atmosphere. ODSs are manufactured halogen source gases that are controlled worldwide by the Montreal Protocol. These gases bring chlorine and bromine atoms to the stratosphere, where they destroy ozone in chemical reactions. Important examples are the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), once used in almost all refrigeration and air conditioning systems, and the halons, which were used as fire extinguishing agents. Current ODS abundances in the atmosphere are known directly from air sample measurements.
Q7 What are the reactive halogen gases that destroy stratospheric ozone?
The chlorine- and bromine-containing gases that enter the stratosphere arise from both human activities and natural processes. When exposed to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, these halogen source gases are converted to more reactive gases that also contain chlorine and bromine. Some reactive gases act as chemical reservoirs which can then be converted into the most reactive gases, namely ClO and BrO. These most reactive gases participate in catalytic reactions that efficiently destroy ozone.
Q8 What are the chlorine and bromine reactions that destroy stratospheric ozone?
Reactive gases containing chlorine and bromine destroy stratospheric ozone in “catalytic” cycles made up of two or more separate reactions. As a result, a single chlorine or bromine atom can destroy many thousands of ozone molecules before it leaves the stratosphere. In this way, a small amount of reactive chlorine or bromine has a large impact on the ozone layer. A special situation develops in polar regions in the late winter/early spring season, where large enhancements in the abundance of the most reactive gas, chlorine monoxide, lead to severe ozone depletion.
Stratospheric ozone is destroyed by reactions involving reactive halogen gases, which are produced in the chemical conversion of halogen source gases. The most reactive of these gases are chlorine monoxide (ClO), bromine monoxide (BrO), and chlorine and bromine atoms (Cl and Br). These gases participate in three principal reaction cycles that destroy ozone.
Q9 Why has an “ozone hole” appeared over Antarctica when ozone-depleting substances are present throughout the stratosphere?
Ozone-depleting substances are present throughout the stratospheric ozone layer because they are transported great distances by atmospheric air motions. The severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer known as the “ozone hole” occurs because of the special meteorological and chemical conditions that exist there and nowhere else on the globe. The very low winter temperatures in the Antarctic stratosphere cause polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) to form. Special reactions that occur on PSCs, combined with the isolation of polar stratospheric air in the polar vortex, allow chlorine and bromine reactions to produce the ozone hole in Antarctic springtime.
Q10 How severe is the depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer?
Severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer was first reported in the mid-1980s. Antarctic ozone depletion is seasonal, occurring primarily in late winter and early spring (August–November). Peak depletion occurs in early October when ozone is often completely destroyed over a range of stratospheric altitudes, thereby reducing total ozone by as much as two-thirds at some locations. This severe depletion creates the “ozone hole” apparent in images of Antarctic total ozone acquired using satellite instruments. In most years the maximum area of the ozone hole far exceeds the size of the Antarctic continent.
Q11 Is there depletion of the Arctic ozone layer?
Yes, significant depletion of the Arctic ozone layer now occurs in most years in the late winter and early spring period (January–March). However, Arctic ozone depletion is less severe than that observed in the Antarctic and exhibits larger year-to-year differences as a consequence of the highly variable meteorological conditions found in the Arctic polar stratosphere. Even the most severe Arctic ozone depletion does not lead to total ozone amounts as low as those seen in the Antarctic, because Arctic ozone abundances during early winter before the onset of ozone depletion are much larger than those in the Antarctic. Consequently, an extensive and recurrent “ozone hole”, as found in the Antarctic stratosphere, does not occur in the Arctic.
Q12 How large is the depletion of the global ozone layer?
The abundance of globally averaged total ozone is now about 2–3% below the amount present during 1964–1980. The abundance of global total ozone declined steadily throughout the 1980s due to the increases in reactive halogen gases in the stratosphere resulting from human activities. In the early 1990s, global total ozone was depleted by 5% relative to the 1964–1980 average, the maximum depletion observed during the modern instrument era. In both hemispheres, total ozone depletion is small near the equator and increases toward the poles. The larger depletion at higher latitudes is due, in part, to the late winter/early spring destruction of ozone that occurs in polar regions, particularly in Antarctica.
Q13 Do changes in the Sun and volcanic eruptions affect the ozone layer?
Yes, factors such as changes in solar radiation and the formation of stratospheric aerosol particles after explosive volcanic eruptions do influence the ozone layer. Global ozone abundances vary by 1–2% between the maximum and minimum of the 11-year solar cycle. The abundance of global ozone decreased by about 2% for a few years after the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, due to volcanic enhancement of stratospheric sulfate aerosols. However, neither factor can explain the observed decrease in global total ozone or the severe ozone depletion observed in polar regions over the past half century. The primary influence on long-term changes in total global ozone is the abundance of stratospheric halogens.
Q14 Are there controls on the production of ozone-depleting substances?
Yes, the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are controlled under a 1987 international agreement known as the “Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer” and its subsequent Amendments and Adjustments. The Protocol, now ratified by 198 parties, establishes legally binding controls on national production and consumption of ODSs. Production and consumption of all principal ODSs by developed and developing nations will be almost completely phased out by 2030. The Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol. In 1985, a treaty called the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed by 28 nations in Vienna. The signing nations agreed to take appropriate measures to protect the ozone layer from human activities. The Vienna Convention was a framework agreement that supported research, exchange of information, and future protocols. In response to growing concern, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was signed in 1987 and, following ratification, entered into force in 1989. The Protocol has been successful in establishing legally binding controls for developed and developing nations on the production and consumption of halogen source gases known to cause ozone depletion. Halogen source gases containing chlorine and bromine controlled under the Montreal Protocol are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). National consumption of an ODS is defined as production plus imports of the controlled substance, minus exports of the substance. The Protocol provisions are structured for developed countries to act first and for developing countries to follow with some financial assistance. In 2009, the Montreal Protocol became the first multilateral environmental agreement to achieve universal ratification.
Q15 Has the Montreal Protocol been successful in reducing ozone-depleting substances in the atmosphere?
Yes, as a result of the Montreal Protocol, the overall abundance of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) in the atmosphere has been decreasing for the past two decades. If the nations of the world continue to comply with the provisions of the Montreal Protocol, the decrease will continue throughout the 21st century. Those gases that are still increasing in the atmosphere, such as halon-1301 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), will begin to decrease in the coming decades if compliance with the Protocol continues. However, it is only after midcentury that the abundance of ODSs is expected to fall to values that were present before the Antarctic ozone hole was first observed in the early 1980s, due to the long atmospheric lifetime of these gases.
Q16 Does depletion of the ozone layer increase ground-level ultraviolet radiation?
Yes, ultraviolet radiation at Earth’s surface increases as the amount of overhead total ozone decreases, because ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Measurements by ground-based instruments and estimates made using satellite data provide evidence that surface ultraviolet radiation has increased in large geographic regions in response to ozone depletion.
The depletion of stratospheric ozone leads to an increase in solar ultraviolet radiation at Earth’s surface. The increase occurs primarily in the ultraviolet-B (UV-B) component of the Sun’s radiation. UV-B is defined as radiation in the wavelength range of 280 to 315 nanometers, which is invisible to the human eye. Long-term changes in UV-B radiation reaching the surface have been measured directly and can be estimated from total ozone changes.
Exposure to UV-B radiation can harm humans, other life forms, and materials. Most of the effects of sunlight on the human body are caused by UV-B radiation. A principal effect is skin erythema, which leads to sunburn. Excess exposure may lead to skin cancer. Erythemal radiation is regularly reported to the public in many countries in the form of the UV Index. Longterm changes in surface UV-B radiation are important to study because of potential harmful effects as well as the relationship between excess UV-B radiation and ozone depletion.
Q17 Is depletion of the ozone layer the principal cause of global climate change?
No, ozone depletion is not the principal cause of global climate change. Ozone depletion and global climate change are linked because both ozone-depleting substances and their substitutes are greenhouse gases. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas, so stratospheric ozone depletion leads to surface cooling. Conversely, increases in tropospheric ozone and other greenhouse gases lead to surface warming. The cooling from ozone depletion is small compared to the warming from the greenhouse gases responsible for observed global climate change. The Antarctic ozone hole has contributed to changes in Southern Hemisphere surface climate through effects on the atmospheric circulation.
While stratospheric ozone depletion is not the principal cause of climate change, aspects of ozone depletion and climate change are closely linked. Both processes involve gases released to the atmosphere by human activities. The links are best understood by examining the contribution to climate change of the gases involved: ozone; ozone-depleting substances (or halogen source gases) and their substitutes; and other leading greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases and the radiative forcing of climate. The warming of Earth by the Sun is enhanced by the presence of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The natural abundances of GHGs in Earth’s atmosphere absorb outgoing infrared radiation, trapping heat in the atmosphere and warming the surface. The most important natural GHG is water vapor. Without this natural greenhouse effect, Earth’s surface would be much colder than current conditions. Human activities have led to significant increases in the atmospheric abundances of a number of long-lived and short-lived GHGs since 1750, the start of the Industrial Era, leading to warming of Earth’s surface and associated climate changes. This group includes carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), tropospheric ozone, and halocarbons. Ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) and their substitutes make up a large fraction of the halocarbons in today’s atmosphere. Increases in the abundances of these gases from human activities cause more outgoing infrared radiation to be absorbed and reemitted back to the surface, further warming the atmosphere and surface. This change in Earth’s energy balance caused by human activities is called a radiative forcing of climate or, more simply, a climate forcing. The magnitude of this energy imbalance is usually evaluated at the top of the troposphere (tropopause) and is expressed using units of watts per square meter (W/m2). The potential for climate change rises as this radiative forcing increases.
Q18 Are Montreal Protocol controls of ozone-depleting substances also helping protect Earth’s climate?
Yes. Many ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are also potent greenhouse gases that contribute to climate forcing when they accumulate in the atmosphere. Montreal Protocol controls have led to a substantial reduction in the emissions of ODSs over the last two decades. These reductions, while protecting the ozone layer, have the additional benefit of reducing the human contribution to climate change. Without Montreal Protocol controls, the climate forcing due to ODSs could now be nearly two and a half times the present value.
The success of the Montreal Protocol in controlling the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) has protected the ozone layer. The resulting reductions in atmospheric abundances of ODSs also decreased the human influence on climate because all ODSs are greenhouse gases. By protecting both ozone and climate, the Montreal Protocol has provided a dual benefit to society and Earth’s ecosystems.
Q19 How has the protection of climate by the Montreal Protocol expanded beyond the regulation of ozone depleting substances?
At the 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol held in Kigali, Rwanda, in October 2016, the Montreal Protocol was amended to control the production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). The Montreal Protocol phaseout of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) led to the temporary use of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). The subsequent phaseout of HCFCs led to expanded long-term use of HFCs, because HFCs pose no threat to the ozone layer. However, HFCs are greenhouse gases and therefore contribute to climate change. Limiting the production and consumption of those HFCs with high global warming potentials is projected to avoid 0.2 to 0.4°C of global warming over this century. The Kigali Amendment marks the first time the Montreal Protocol has adopted regulations solely for the protection of climate.
The control of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) by the Montreal Protocol provides the dual benefit of protecting Earth’s ozone layer and global climate. The widespread global use of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and their projected future growth in the coming decades has been recognized by the Montreal Protocol as a potentially significant contribution to climate change from human activities. In response, the Kigali Amendment was adopted to control production and consumption of HFCs with high Global Warming Potentials (GWPs). Full compliance with the provisions of the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol will significantly enhance the climate-protection benefit of this international agreement.
Q20 How is ozone expected to change in the coming decades?
Substantial recovery of the ozone layer from the effects of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) is expected around the middle of the 21st century, assuming global compliance with the Montreal Protocol. Recovery will occur as ODSs and reactive halogen gas abundances in the stratosphere decrease in the coming decades. In addition to responding to ODSs, ozone abundances are increasingly being influenced by climate change. The impacts of future climate change on the ozone layer will vary between the tropics, mid altitudes, and polar regions, and strongly depend on future emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). During the long recovery period, large volcanic eruptions could temporarily reduce global ozone amounts for several years.
Substantial recovery from the depletion of global and polar ozone caused by ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) is expected in the middle of this century. The recovery follows from the success of the Montreal Protocol in reducing the global production and consumption of ODSs. Currently, the atmospheric abundances of most major ODSs and the associated annual values of equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC) are in decline. In contrast to the diminishing role of ODSs, changes in climate are expected to have an increasing influence on future levels of total ozone. Climate change is driven by the projected growth in the abundance of greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Rising abundances of GHGs will lead to changes in temperature, chemistry, and the circulation of the stratosphere, all of which affect ozone. Chemistry-climate models can be used to project how ozone is expected to respond to changes in ODSs and climate in particular geographical regions during the recovery period. Global events, such as major volcanic eruptions or actions to mitigate global warming by geoengineering, may also influence future ozone levels.
Using chemistry-climate models: Projections of total ozone presented here are based on the results from a group of chemistry- climate models that account for the influences of changes in ODSs and GHGs. These models show how changes in ozone are expected to vary across geographic regions by evaluating the complex interactions of the processes that control ozone and climate involving radiation, chemistry, and transport. Model inputs include historical and projected concentrations of ODSs, CO2, CH4, N2O, air pollutant gases, as well as solar output. The results from chemistry-climate model simulations are used to identify particular processes that are important for future abundances of ozone. For example, model projections for the coming decades show a strengthening in the atmospheric circulation that brings air from the troposphere into the stratosphere in the tropics, moves air poleward into both hemispheres, and then returns air to the troposphere at middle to high latitudes. These circulation changes will significantly alter the global distribution of ozone and the atmospheric lifetimes of ODSs and other long-lived gases. Also, while Earth’s surface is expected to continue to warm in response to positive radiative forcing (RF) of climate from GHGs, the stratosphere is expected to continue to cool. A colder upper stratosphere leads to increases in ozone because lower temperatures slow down the gas-phase reactions responsible for ozone loss. Finally, methane and nitrous oxide are both involved in the chemistry that determines future levels of stratospheric ozone.
Source: https://ozone.unep.org/20-questions-and-answers
Time: 03:04, Sept. 07, 2020